References Djj
1. I.F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cyirci, Wireless sensor networks a survey. Computer Networks, 38 4 , 393-422, 2002. 2. A. Avizienis and J.P.J. Kelly, Fault tolerance by design diversity concepts and experiments, IEEE Computer, 17 8 , 67-80, August 1984. A. Avizienis, The -version approach to fault tolerant software, IEEE Trans. Soft. Eng., SE-11 12 , 1491-1501, 1985. K. Birman. Replication and fault-tolerance in the ISIS system. In Proc. 10th ACM Symp. Operating Syst....
Contributors
University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey Communications Research Laboratories Kyoto, Japan University State College, Pennsylvania Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida Istanbul Technical University Istanbul, Turkey Duke University Durham, North Carolina and State University Blacksburg, Virginia University of Valencia Valencia, Spain MIT Lincoln Laboratory Lexington, Massachusetts...
A Sensor Network for Biological Data Acquisition
Single-Packet Storage Methods Multiple-Packet Storage
References Qsr
1. S. Adlakha and M. Srivastava, Critical density thresholds for coverage in wireless sensor networks, IEEE Wireless Commun. Networking, 3, 16-20, March 2003. 2. M. Cardei, D. MacCallum, X. Cheng, M. Min, X. Jia, D. Li, and D.-Z. Du, Wireless sensor networks with energy efficient organization, J. Interconnection Networks, 3 3-4 , 213-229, Dec 2002. 3. M. Cardei and D.-Z. Du, Improving wireless sensor network lifetime through power aware organization, accepted to appear in ACM Wireless Networks....
Related Work Wyj
This section briefly describes related work in two primary areas development of DoS as a security concern and classification of DoS attacks. Gligor presents an early definition of DoS, as already discussed in Subsection 32.1.2, in terms of users, services, and maximum waiting times 19 . He argues that current operating system protection mechanisms are insufficient to address DoS. Interuser dependencies are identified as a critical element of DoS. Gligor claims that any dependency between users...
SensorWare
SensorWare 5, 6 is another active sensor framework developed at UCLA. This framework uses a highlevel scripting abstraction based around Tcl 23 and a highly expandable run-time environment. The run-time environment provides multiple services that achieve the sharing of the sensor node's resources among multiple applications. The programming model is event based with event handlers to react to various high-level, application-specific events that occur during a period of interest. The...
RightHand Rule and Face Routing
The right hand rule is a method long known for traversing a graph in analogy to following the right-hand wall in a maze it has been used in some wireless routing protocols 20, 77, 78, 145 . The rule states that when arriving at node x from node y, the next edge traversed is the next one sequentially counterclockwise about x from edge xy. In the example shown in Figure 39.13, x will forward the packet to z, following the right-hand rule, thus traversing face P. It is known that the right-hand...
References Cwk
1. Adorni, G., Destri, G., and Mordonini, M. Indoor vehicle navigation by means of signs. Proc. IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symp., Proc., 76, New York, 1996. 2. Bajcsy, R., Active perception, Proc. IEEE., 76, 8, 966, 1988. 3. Bedworth, M. and O'Brien, J. The omnibus model a new model of data fusion Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Inf. Fusion, 1999. 4. Best, J.B., Cognitive Psychology, 4th ed., West Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1995. 5. Biel, L. and Wide, P., Active perception in a sensor fusion...
Delaunay Triangulation and Voronoi Diagram
Assume that no four vertices of V are cocircular. A triangulation of V is a Delaunay triangulation, denoted by Del V , if the circumcircle of each of its triangles does not contain any other vertices of V in its interior. A triangle is called the Delaunay triangle if its circumcircle is empty of vertices of V see Figure 39.2 d for an illustration. The Voronoi region, denoted by Vor p , of a vertex p e V is a collection of two FIGURE 39.4 The Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation of a set...
EnergyEfficient Random Coverage
This subection presents several energy-efficient coverage mechanisms because energy efficiency, caused by limited battery resources, is an important issue in WASN. Mechanisms that conserve energy resources are highly desirable because they have a direct impact on network lifetime. Network lifetime is in general defined as the time interval in which the network can perform the sensing functions and transmit data to the sink. During the network lifetime, some nodes may become unavailable e.g.,...
Attack Taxonomy
A taxonomy allows one to reason about attacks at a level higher than a simple list of vulnerabilities. It provides a classification system that ideally suggests ways to mitigate attacks by prevention, detection, and recovery. It can aid risk management by identifying vulnerabilities and making attacker characteristics explicit. Ideally, its insights can predict future attacks by exposing unguarded areas. Every DoS attack is perpetrated by someone. The attacker has an identity and a motive and...
Yao Graph and 0Graph
The Yao graph 164 , with an integer parameter k gt 6 denoted by YGk G , is defined as follows. At each node u, any k equally separated rays originated at u define k cones. In each cone, choose the shortest edge uv among all edges from u, if any there, and add a directed link uv . Ties are broken arbitrarily. The resulting directed graph is called the Yao graph see Figure 39.2 c for an illustration. Let YGk G be the undirected graph by ignoring the direction of each link in YGk G . If the link...
References Ozi
1. Srisathapornphat, C., Jaikaeo, C., and Shen, C.-C., Sensor information networking architecture, in Proc. 2000 Int. Workshop on Parallel Processing, 23-30, Toronto, Canada, August 21-24, 2000. 2. Deb, B., Bhatnagar, S., and Nath, B., A topology discovery algorithm for sensor networks with applications to network management, in IEEE CAS Workshop Wireless Commun. Networking, Pasadena, CA, September 5-6, 2002. 3. Akyildiz, I.F. et al. Wireless sensor networks a survey, Computer Networks, 38 4 ,...
Restricted Delaunay Graph
Gao et al. 55 also proposed another structure, called restricted Delaunay graph RDG and showed that it has good spanning ratio properties and can be maintained locally. A restricted Delaunay graph of a set of points in the plane is a planar graph and contains all the Delaunay edges with length of, at most, one. In other words, these authors call any planar graph containing UDel V a restricted Delaunay graph. They described a distributed algorithm to construct a RDG such that, at the end of the...
SinglePacket Storage Methods
Numerous methods can be used to model packet generation, storage, and erasure. Here, five possible methods are considered JUSTTTL FULL_ERASE IMMUNE IMMUNE_TX and VACCINE. These methods progressively extend one another. In all of them, the original packet and all of its copies are erased Tp F-1 Pthresh time steps after the original packet was created. JUST_TTL is the simplest method. All packets remain in the system until Tp F-1 Pthresh time steps have elapsed from the original packet creation....
Directional SourceAware Routing Protocol DSAP
In order to resolve the problems of power efficiency, a unique identification system has been developed for the networks used. The idea behind this identification system is to identify the location of each node in the network that will help in routing the packets. The system has the following properties Each value represents how far the node is from a certain direction. Each ID gives how far the node is from the nodes in each direction. Each node can compute the direction of other nodes from...
Motivation and Design Issues in WSN Routing
One of the main design goals of WSNs is to prolong the lifetime of the network and prevent connectivity degradation by employing aggressive energy management techniques. This is motivated by the fact that energy sources in WSNs are irreplaceable and their lifetime is limited. However, the positions of the sensor nodes are usually not engineered or predetermined and thus allow random deployment in inaccessible terrain or disaster relief operations. This implies that the nodes are expected to...
Passive and Active Perception
The perception process of an artificial system can be considered in two parts the active and the passive. In a passive perception application, the incoming data are organized using a type of fusion in order to represent information about the surroundings. The information, which can be considered an environmental picture, is then processed through the system to the various components. It is considered passive perception when no feedback component is present to readjust or redirect the...
Design Choices
Sensor nodes, also called wireless transceivers, are tiny devices equipped with one or more sensors one or more transceivers processing storage resources and, possibly, actuators. Sensor nodes organize in networks and collaborate to accomplish a larger sensing task. One important class of WSNs is wireless ad hoc sensor networks WASN , characterized by an ad hoc or random sensor deployment method in which the sensor location is not known a priori. This feature is required when individual sensor...
Transmission Power Control
In the previous sections, it has been assumed that the transmission power of every node is equal and is normalized to one unit. This assumption is relaxed for a moment in this section. In other words, assume that each node can adjust its transmission power according to its neighbors' positions. A natural question is then how to assign the transmission power for each node so that the wireless sensor network is connected with optimization criteria minimizing the maximum or total transmission...
Application Layer Protocols
Although many application areas for sensor networks are defined and proposed, potential application layer protocols for sensor networks remain largely unexplored. Three possible application layer protocols are introduced in this section sensor management protocol task assignment and data advertisement protocol and sensor query and data dissemination protocol. These protocols may require protocols at other stack layers explained in the remaining sections of this chapter . 16.2.2.1 Sensor...
References Kdx
1. J. Agre and L. Clare, An integrated architecture for cooperative sensing networks, Computer Mag., 33 5 , 106-108, 2000. 2. I.F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci, Wireless sensor network a survey, Computer Networks, 38 4 , 393-422, March 2002. 3. G. Anastasi, L. Lenzini, and E. Mingozzi, Stability and performance analysis of HIPERLAN, IEEE INFOCOM 1998, 1, 134-141, San Francisco, 1998. 4. G. Asada et al., Wireless integrated network sensors low power systems on a chip,...
UCLA Medusa MK2 Node
The Medusa MK-2 node is a representative of the state-of-the-art design of more powerful sensor nodes 55 . The computational unit of Medusa MK-2 nodes consists of two microcontrollers. The first is an 8-b Atmel STMega128L MCU with 4 MHz that has 32 K of flash memory and 4 KB of RAM. This processor serves as an interface between sensors and radio base band processing. The second microcontroller is an ATMEL ARM THUMB processor enclosed within a 120-ball BGA package. It has significantly more...
Structure Based on LMST
The first new method 107 uses a structure called local minimum spanning tree, but it is first necessary to review its definition, proposed by Li and colleagues 95 . Each node u first collects its one-hop neighbors Nl u . Node u then computes the minimum spanning tree MST Nl u of the induced unit disk graph on its one-hop neighbors Nl u . Node u keeps a directed edge uv if and only if uv is an edge in MST N1 u . The union of all directed edges of all nodes is called the local minimum spanning...
Handbook of Sensor Networks Compact Wireless and Hired Sensing Systems
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of sensor networks compact wireless and wired sensing systems edited by Mohammad Ilyas and Imad Mahgoub. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-1968-4 alk. paper 1. Sensor networks. 2. Wireless LANs. I. Ilyas, Mohammad, 1953- II. Mahgoub, Imad. TK7872.D48.H36 2004 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material...
Asi
A simple sensor actuator bus provides for use in automation of machines, production lines, and technologies. It is available predominantly for connection of binary sensors and binary actuators. Tree network topology is available. The segment length must not exceed 100 m without repeaters. Any combination of active and passive slaves up to 256 binary slaves and actuators is permitted on a segment. The network cycle period must not exceed 128 ms. Physical layer is based on reliable alternating...
Technical Challenges and Requirements
WSN design is motivated and influenced by one or more of the following technical challenges 1, 32, 69 Massive and random deployment. Most WSNs contain a large number of sensor nodes hundreds to thousands or even more , which might be spread randomly over the intended areas or are dropped densely in inaccessible terrains or hazardous regions. The system must execute self-configuration before the normal sensing routine can take off. Data redundancy. The dense deployment of sensor nodes leads to...
Minimum Coverage
In the minimum-coverage paradigm, the objective is to cover some set T of targets completely by a minimum size of set S of sensors in a surveillance region R. Its corresponding decision problem is defined as follows given some set T of targets in a surveillance region R, determine whether some set S of sensors can completely cover all the targets. It is shown that even the restricted version of the minimum-coverage problem remains NP-complete. The proof directly follows 17 . In the restricted...
Bitbus Updated as IEEE 1118
Bitbus, developed by Intel, is one of the oldest serial buses for industrial use. The bitbus specification allows interconnecting 28 nodes over a distance of 30 m for synchronous mode with bit rate 2.4 Mb s up to 250 nodes over 13.2 km in a self-clocked mode with bit rate 62.5 kb s. Topology one or more interconnected buses Maximum length 13.2 km with 62.5 kb s and 250 nodes maximum of 28 nodes per segment Medium access control master-slave with acknowledgment Data transmission rate 62.5 kb s...
Combining Face Routing with Greedy Routing
Greedy routing was used in early routing protocols for wireless networks. However, it is easy to construct a simple example to show that greedy algorithm will not succeed to reach the destination but fall into a local minimum, a node without any better neighbors. A natural approach to improve the potential of greedy routing for practical purposes is to combine greedy routing and face routing or the right-hand rule to recover the routing after simple greedy routing fails in local minimum. Many...
NineBit Interprocessor Protocol
The NBIP 9-b interprocessor protocol NBIP 10 is a character-oriented data-link layer communication protocol for a master-slaves multidrop configuration with polling. The protocol makes full use of the so-called multiprocessor communication modes, which are based on 9-b characters. The NBIP communication procedure was designed by Intel's researchers to fit serial ports of the MCS-51 and MCS-96 families of microcontrollers interconnected by a serial bus nevertheless, such communication modes are...
BWRC Piconode
Another communication-centered sensor node design is the PicoNode 52 . The main overall objective of this design is to provide flexibility and low energy consumption simultaneously. It consists of four main modules. The first two units are processors an embedded processor unit and configurable satellite units. The embedded processor is dedicated mainly for application and protocol-stack layers that require higher flexibility but have relatively low computational complexity and are infrequently...
References Kfk
1. Agre, J.R. et al., Development platform for self-organizing wireless sensor networks, in Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Optical Eng., 3713, 257, 1999. 2. Akyildiz, I.F. et al., Wireless sensor networks a survey, Computer Networks, 38, 393, 2002. 3. Asada, G. el at., Wireless integrated network sensors low power systems on a chip, in Proc. 24th Eur. Solid-State Circuits Conf., 9, 1998. 4. Behbahani, F. et al., A fully integrated low-IF CMOS GPS radio with on-chip analog image rejection, IEEE J....
SelfOrganizing MAC for Sensor Networks SMACS and Eavesdrop and Register EAR
Self-organizing MAC for sensor networks SMACS is designed for network startup and link layer organization in a static WSN 17 it is one of the earliest attempts to develop MAC protocols for sensor networks. In this scheme, each node maintains a TDMA frame in which the node schedules different time slots to communicate with its known neighbors. During each time slot, it only talks to one neighbor. To avoid interference between adjacent links, the protocol uses different frequency channels FDMA or...
Foundation Fieldbus
Foundation fieldbus is the result of cooperation of the ISP Interoperable System Project and WorldFIP initiatives. It is the youngest and the most advanced fieldbus for industrial applications, namely, for process control in chemical, pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and other processing industries. Foundation fieldbus in the H1 variant can be used also for the explosive area because it is based on the IEC 1158-2 physical layer standard. Foundation fieldbus nodes can be classed as basic devices...
References Mvt
1. Bar-Shalom, Y. and Li, X.R., Multitarget-Multisensor Tracking Principles and Techniques, YBS Publishing, 1995. 2. Bar-Shalom, Y., On the track-to-track correlation problem, IEEE Trans. Automatic Control, 26, 571, 1981. 3. Chong, C.Y., Mori, S., and Chang, K.C. Distributed multitarget multisensor tracking, in Multitarget-Multisensor Tracking Advanced Applications, vol. 1, Bar-Shalom, Y., Ed., Artech House, Norwood, MA, 1990. 4. Bar-Shalom, Y., Ed., Multitarget-Multisensor Tracking Advanced...
Identifying Faulty Nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks
A sensor node in a WSN may cease its sensing task due to power depletion or because it was affected or destroyed by external events. In favorable circumstances, a neighboring sensor may be able to cover, even partially, the sensing task of its neighboring faulty nodes. However, the accuracy of the sensed data tends to decrease as the number of faulty sensor nodes increases to a point at which the sensed data may not correctly reflect the physical events. If the state of the sensors in the...
SECTION IX Performance and Design Aspects
37 Low-Power Design for Smart Dust Networks Zdravko Karakehayov 38 Energy-Efficient Design of Distributed Sensor Networks Lin Yuan, Gang Qu 39 Wireless Sensor Networks and Computational Geometry Xiang-Yang Li, Yu Wang 39.6 Summary and Open Questions 40 Localized Algorithms for Sensor Networks Jessica Feng, Farinaz Koushanfar, 40.6 Protocols and Distributed Localized Algorithms
EAR Algorithm
The EAR algorithm enables seamless interconnection of mobile nodes in the field of stationary wireless nodes. This protocol performs the mobility management of the network allowing mobile nodes to listen to the communication from the stationary nodes and establish connectivity with them. Because of energy limitations, the communication channels between the mobile and stationary sensors in the network must be established using as few messages as possible. This is accomplished by allowing the...
DVS Circuit
The basic variable core power supply schematic is shown in Figure 27.5. The MAX1717 step-down controller is used to regulate the core supply voltage dynamically through the 5-b digital-to-analog converter DAC inputs over a 0.925 to 2 V range. The converter works on the following principle. A variable duty cycle pulse width modulated PWM signal alternately turns on the power transistors M1 and M2. This produces a rectangular wave at the output of the transistors with duty cycle D. The LC...
Minimum Spanning Tree Relative Neighborhood Graph and Gabriel Graph
The minimum spanning tree of G, denoted by MST G , is the tree belonging to E that connects all nodes and whose total edge length is minimized. MST G is obviously one of the sparsest connected subgraphs, but its stretch factor can be as large as n - 1. The relative neighborhood graph, denoted by RNG G , is a geometric concept proposed by Toussaint 148 . It consists of all edges uv e E such that there is no point w e Vwith edges uw and wv in E satisfying lt uv and wv lt uv . See Figure 39.2 a...
Routing in WSNs Future Directions
The future vision of WSNs is to embed numerous distributed devices to monitor and interact with physical world phenomena and to exploit spatially and temporally dense sensing and actuation capabilities of those sensor networks. These nodes coordinate among themselves to create a network that performs higher level tasks. Although extensive efforts have been exerted so far on the routing problem in WSNs, some challenges still confront effective solutions of the routing problem. First, there is a...
Experimental Results
A proof-of-concept experiment has been conducted at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in which the NRM allocates distributed networked resources for a sensor data fusion application in various scenarios 35 . Information for area delimitation amp change Real-time SIGINT Data Provides cuing Real-time IMINT Data Provide timely, day-night, all-weather data FIGURE 2.8 OASIS ATR and visualization. FIGURE 2.8 OASIS ATR and visualization. TABLE 2.2 Synopsis of NRM Expected Performance TABLE 2.2 Synopsis of NRM...
Management Dimensions
In general, for traditional networks, management aspects are clearly separated from network common activities, i.e., from the services they provide to their users. It is also said that an overlap of management and network functionalities exists, although the implementation can be thought of independently. This separation can be promoted by using two traditional management dimensions management functional areas 14 and management levels 15 . The requirements to be satisfied by systems management...
Opportunities
1.2.1 Growing Research and Commercial Interest Research and commercial interest in the area of wireless sensor networks are currently growing exponentially, which is manifested in many ways The number of Web pages Google 26,000 hits for sensor networks 8000 for wireless sensor networks in August 2003 Dedicated annual workshops, such as IPSN information processing in sensor networks SenSys EWSN European workshop on wireless sensor networks SNPA sensor network protocols and applications and WSNA...